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This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros. Astrology — Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial objects as a means for divining information about human affairs and terrestrial events.
Throughout most of its history astrology was considered a tradition and was common in academic circles, often in close relation with astronomy, alchemy, meteorology. It was present in political circles, and is mentioned in works of literature, from Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer to William Shakespeare, Lope de Vega.
Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in it has largely declined, Astrology is now recognized to be pseudoscience. Many cultures have attached importance to astronomical events, and the Indians, Chinese, the majority of professional astrologers rely on such systems. Astrology has been dated to at least the 2nd millennium BCE, with roots in systems used to predict seasonal shifts.
A form of astrology was practised in the first dynasty of Mesopotamia, Chinese astrology was elaborated in the Zhou dynasty. In Rome, astrology was associated with Chaldean wisdom, after the conquest of Alexandria in the 7th century, astrology was taken up by Islamic scholars, and Hellenistic texts were translated into Arabic and Persian. In the 12th century, Arabic texts were imported to Europe, major astronomers including Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler and Galileo practised as court astrologers.
Astrological references appear in literature in the works of such as Dante Alighieri and Geoffrey Chaucer. Throughout most of its history, astrology was considered a scholarly tradition and it was accepted in political and academic contexts, and was connected with other studies, such as astronomy, alchemy, meteorology, and medicine. At the end of the 17th century, new concepts in astronomy. Astrology thus lost its academic and theoretical standing, and common belief in astrology has largely declined, Astrology, in its broadest sense, is the search for meaning in the sky.
This was a first step towards recording the Moons influence upon tides and rivers, by the 3rd millennium BCE, civilisations had sophisticated awareness of celestial cycles, and may have oriented temples in alignment with heliacal risings of the stars.
Scattered evidence suggests that the oldest known references are copies of texts made in the ancient world. The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa thought to be compiled in Babylon around BCE, a scroll documenting an early use of electional astrology is doubtfully ascribed to the reign of the Sumerian ruler Gudea of Lagash. Jesus myth theory — The Christ myth theory is the proposition that Christianity started with the belief in a new deity, named Jesus, who was later historicized in the Gospels, which are essentially allegory and fiction.
Alternatively in simpler terms — given by Bart Ehrman — the historical Jesus did not exist, or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity. There is an absence of any detailed biographical information such as might be expected if Jesus had been a contemporary of Paul.
Therefore he is writing about either a mythical entity, a celestial deity. Christianity arose in the Greco-Roman world of the first and second century CE, synthesizing Jewish, early Christianity shared common philosophical and religious ideas with other religions of the time, including the ideas of personified aspects of God, and of a dying-and-arising savior deity.
No independent eyewitness accounts survive, in spite of the fact that many authors were writing at that time, early second-century Roman accounts contain very little evidence, and may depend on Christian sources. Some mythicists hold — in terms given by Robert M. Price — the Jesus agnosticism viewpoint, while others go further and hold the Jesus atheism viewpoint. Some scholars have made the case there are a number of plausible Jesuses that could have existed.
Others have said that Jesus may have lived far earlier, in a dimly remembered remote past, a number of writers adduce various arguments to show that Christianity has syncretistic or mythical roots. As such, the historical Jesus should not be regarded as the founder of the religion, in modern scholarship, the Christ Myth Theory is a fringe theory, and is accepted by only a small number of academics.
The origins of Christianity, and the historical Jesus and the historicity of Jesus, are a matter of longstanding debates in theological and historical research.
Within a few years after the death of Jesus in ca. A central question is how these developed, and what their original convictions were. Mythicists have been criticised for not explaining the rise of early Christianity. Elements of the Christ myth, and its cultus, can be found in the Pauline epistles and this new deity was fleshed out in the Gospels, which added a narrative framework and Cynic-like teachings, and eventually came to be perceived as a historical biography.
According to Wells et al. They further note that the Gospels are a composite of various strands of thought, and note the similarities of early Christianity, Christ myth theorists generally reject the usefulness of these letters.
Historicity of Jesus — The historicity of Jesus concerns the degree to which sources show Jesus of Nazareth existed as a historical figure. A second issue is tied to historical research practices and methodologies for analyzing the reliability of primary sources. It also considers the question of whether he was a Nazirite, historicity, by contrast as a subject of study different from history proper, is concerned with two different fundamental issues. The main accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus are third party narratives written years after his death, many scholars have questioned the authenticity and reliability of these sources, and few events that are mentioned in the gospels are universally accepted.
Non-Christian sources which are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as Josephus, similarities and differences between these sources are used in the authentication process. Josephus Antiquities of the Jews, written around 93—94 AD, includes two references to the biblical Jesus in Books 18 and Referred both to Christus and his execution by Pontius Pilate, the very negative tone of Tacitus comments on Christians make the passage extremely unlikely to have been forged by a Christian scribe.
The Tacitus reference is now accepted as an independent confirmation of Christs crucifixion. The historical reliability of the gospels refers to the reliability and historic character of the four New Testament gospels as historical documents, some scholars state that the authorship of the gospels is pseudepigraphic and unknown, and little in the four canonical gospels is considered to be historically reliable.
Most scholars of antiquity agree that Jesus existed, but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the accounts of Jesus. The Synoptic Gospels are the sources of historical information about Jesus. Historians subject the gospels to critical analysis by differentiating authentic, reliable information from possible inventions, exaggerations, since there are more textual variants in the New Testament than it has letters, scholars use textual criticism to determine which gospel variants could theoretically be taken as original.
Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. There is much in dispute as to his previous life, childhood, family and place of residence, scholars attribute varying levels of certainty to other episodes.
Some assume that there are eight elements about Jesus and his followers that can be viewed as historical facts, namely and he had a controversy at the Temple. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U. Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party.
The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government.
Because the seat of government is in Washington, D. C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in , making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics.
The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities. For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress.
The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below.
The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census.
All representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House. There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner.
In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently senators, who each serve six-year terms. War on Terror — The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States.
Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror. The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U.
The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September , during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there.
It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April , the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. In March , the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place.
Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights.
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August , al-Qaeda struck the U. Civil liberties — Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process.
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The crowdfunding portal will be self adjusting to the current price of ETH Ethereum at the time of contribution. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.
There is much in dispute as to his previous life, childhood, family and place of residence, scholars attribute varying levels of certainty to other episodes. Some assume that there are eight elements about Jesus and his followers that can be viewed as historical facts, namely and he had a controversy at the Temple. The federal government is composed of three branches, legislative, executive, and judicial, whose powers are vested by the U.
Constitution in the Congress, the President, and the courts, including the Supreme Court. The powers and duties of these branches are defined by acts of Congress. The full name of the republic is United States of America, no other name appears in the Constitution, and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which it is a party.
The terms Government of the United States of America or United States Government are often used in documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term Federal Government is often used, the terms Federal and National in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with the federal government. Because the seat of government is in Washington, D.
C, Washington is commonly used as a metonym for the federal government. The outline of the government of the United States is laid out in the Constitution, the government was formed in , making the United States one of the worlds first, if not the first, modern national constitutional republics. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism, some make the case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals, the states or other recognized entities.
For example, while the legislative has the power to create law, the President nominates judges to the nations highest judiciary authority, but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in its turn, has the power to invalidate as unconstitutional any law passed by the Congress and these and other examples are examined in more detail in the text below.
The United States Congress is the branch of the federal government. It is bicameral, comprising the House of Representatives and the Senate, the House currently consists of voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district. The number of each state has in the House is based on each states population as determined in the most recent United States Census. All representatives serve a two-year term, each state receives a minimum of one representative in the House.
There is no limit on the number of terms a representative may serve, in addition to the voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population, there are currently senators, who each serve six-year terms. War on Terror — The War on Terror, also known as the Global War on Terrorism, is a metaphor of war referring to the international military campaign that started after the September 11th attacks on the United States.
Bush first used the term War on Terror on 20 September and it was originally used with a particular focus on countries associated with Islamic terrorist organizations including al-Qaeda and like-minded organizations. Trump has also agreed to work together and carry joint operations with Russian President Vladimir Putin in the war on terror.
The phrase War on Terror has been used to refer to the ongoing military campaign led by the U. The conflict has also referred to by names other than the War on Terror. Author Shane Harris asserts this was a reaction to the Beirut barracks bombing, Bush later apologized for this remark due to the negative connotations the term crusade has to people, e. The word crusade was not used again, on 20 September , during a televised address to a joint session of Congress, Bush stated that ur war on terror begins with al-Qaeda, but it does not end there.
It will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped, in April , the British government announced publicly that it was abandoning the use of the phrase War on Terror as they found it to be less than helpful. So I never felt it helpful to refer to a war on terror. In March , the Obama administration requested that Pentagon staff members avoid the use of the term, basic objectives of the Bush administration war on terror, such as targeting al Qaeda and building international counterterrorism alliances, remain in place.
Because the actions involved in the war on terrorism are diffuse, jackson cites among many examples a statement by John Ashcroft that the attacks of September 11 drew a bright line of demarcation between the civil and the savage. Administration officials also described terrorists as hateful, treacherous, barbarous, mad, twisted, perverted, without faith, parasitical, inhuman, Americans, in contrast, were described as brave, loving, generous, strong, resourceful, heroic, and respectful of human rights.
The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet war in Afghanistan, a small number of Afghan Arab volunteers joined the fight against the Soviets, including Osama bin Laden, but there is no evidence they received any external assistance. On 7 August , al-Qaeda struck the U. Civil liberties — Civil liberties or personal freedoms are personal guarantees and freedoms that the government cannot abridge, either by law or by judicial interpretation, without due process. Many contemporary states have a constitution, a bill of rights, or similar constitutional documents that enumerate, the existence of some claimed civil liberties is a matter of dispute, as are the extent of most civil rights.
Controversial examples include property rights, reproductive rights, and civil marriage, whether the existence of victimless crimes infringes upon civil liberties is a matter of dispute. Another matter of debate is the suspension or alteration of certain civil liberties in times of war or state of emergency, including whether and to what extent this should occur.
The formal concept of civil liberties is often dated back to Magna Carta, the Constitution of Peoples Republic of China, especially its Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens, claims to protect many civil liberties.
Taiwan, which is separated from China, has its own Constitution, the Fundamental Rights—embodied in Part III of the constitution—guarantee liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace as citizens of India. The six fundamental rights are right to equality, right to freedom, right against exploitation, right to freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights and right to constitutional remedies. These include individual rights common to most liberal democracies, incorporated in the law of the land and are enforceable in a court of law.
Violations of these result in punishments as prescribed in the Indian Penal Code. These rights are neither absolute nor immune from constitutional amendments and they have been aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence social practices. Specifically, they resulted in abolishment of un-touchability and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex and they forbid human trafficking and unfree labour.
They protect cultural and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them to preserve their languages, all people, irrespective of race, religion, caste or sex, have the right to approach the High Courts or the Supreme Court for the enforcement of their fundamental rights. It is not necessary that the party has to be the one to do so. In public interest, anyone can initiate litigation in the court on their behalf and this is known as Public interest litigation.
High Court and Supreme Court judges can also act on their own on the basis of media reports, the Fundamental Rights emphasize equality by guaranteeing to all citizens the access and use of public institutions and protections, irrespective of their background. The rights to life and personal liberty apply for persons of any nationality, while others, such as the freedom of speech, the right to equality in matters of public employment cannot be conferred to overseas citizens of India.
Fundamental Rights primarily protect individuals from any arbitrary State actions, for instance, the constitution abolishes untouchability and prohibits begar.
Over the years, events such as the Great Depression in the s, the U. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act, maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserves dual mandate.
S, the Fed conducts research into the economy and releases numerous publications, such as the Beige Book. The federal government sets the salaries of the seven governors.
Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in the Federal Reserve Bank of their region, thus, the Federal Reserve System has both private and public components to serve the interests of the public and private banks. The structure is considered unique among central banks and it is also unusual in that the United States Department of the Treasury, an entity outside of the central bank, prints the currency used.
Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises, a particularly severe crisis in led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to ensuring the stability of the financial system.
S and this practice is called fractional-reserve banking. As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors, on rare occasions, too many of the banks customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating, this is called a bank run.
Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems, the Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a lender of last resort when a bank run does occur. Many economists, following Milton Friedman, believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to banks during the bank runs of Because some banks refused to clear checks from certain others during times of economic uncertainty, to address these problems, Congress gave the Federal Reserve System the authority to establish a nationwide check-clearing system.
It took over this role from the private sector clearing houses which operated during the Free Banking Era, whether public or private, through its discount window and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short-term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals. Longer term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances, the rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate.
By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day-to-day fluctuations in reserve demand and this contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates. Cabal — The use of this term usually carries strong connotations of shadowy corners, back rooms and insidious influence.
The term is used in conspiracy theories, some Masonic theories describe Freemasonry as an internationalist secret cabal. The term cabal derives from Cabala, the Jewish mystical interpretation of the Hebrew scripture, in Hebrew it means reception or tradition, denoting the sod level of Jewish exegesis. In European culture it became associated with occult doctrine or a secret, nor did Buckingham and Ashley get on very well with each other.
The computer game company Valve Corporation uses Cabal Rooms when working on specific areas of projects, the Conficker Cabal is a team of specialists working to defeat the Conficker computer worm, including several notable computer security specialists. In Haskell programming language there is a manager called cabal, used to download. International bankers — The BIS carries out its work through its meetings programmes and through the Basel Process — hosting international groups pursuing global financial stability and facilitating their interaction.
It also provides banking services, but only to central banks and it is based in Basel, Switzerland, with representative offices in Hong Kong and Mexico City. It opened its doors in Basel, Switzerland on 17 May , the need to establish a dedicated institution for this purpose was suggested in by the Young Committee, and was agreed to in August of that year at a conference at The Hague. A charter for the bank was drafted at the International Bankers Conference at Baden-Baden in November, according to the charter, shares in the bank could be held by individuals and non-governmental entities.
The BIS was constituted as having corporate existence in Switzerland on the basis of an agreement with Switzerland acting as headquarters state for the bank and it also enjoyed certain immunities in the contracting states. Instead, the BIS focused on its second statutory task, i.
For instance, in the late s, the BIS was instrumental in helping continental European central banks shipping out part of their reserves to London. At the same time, the BIS fell under the spell of the appeasement illusion, however, as the war dragged on evidence mounted that the BIS conducted operations that were helpful to the Germans.
Also, throughout the war, the BIS accepted gold from the German Reichsbank in payment for prewar obligations linked to the Young Plan and this in spite of repeated Allied warnings not to accept gold or other assets from Nazi Germany. It later transpired that much of gold had been looted by the Germans from the central banks in occupied territories.